A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances are converted to one or more different substances. In the reaction, the atoms of the starting substances are rearranged, forming new substances that have different properties. The number of atoms and the amount of mass are the same before and after the reaction takes place; thus mass is conserved. Chemical reactions are important in both nonliving and living systems. The reactions involve the transfer, transformation, and conservation of energy.
The substances in a chemical reaction may be chemical elements, molecules, or compounds. The substances present at the start of a chemical reaction are called the reactants; the substances formed by the reaction are called the products.
Chemical reactions are a part of technology, of culture, and of life itself. Burning fuels, smelting iron, and baking bread are just some of the human activities incorporating chemical reactions. Chemical reactions abound in the natural world, changing the composition of matter within Earth, on its surface, and in the atmosphere, and driving a vast array of processes in living systems. Chemical reactions in the digestive system help break down food into glucose and other constituent molecules that can be absorbed by cells. The glucose is then further broken down through cellular respiration, a chemical reaction that releases chemical energy that is used to fuel body processes. Perhaps the most important of all chemical reactions is photosynthesis, which directly and indirectly supports almost every living thing on Earth. In photosynthesis, plants, algae, and certain microorganisms transform light energy from the Sun into the chemical energy of food.
Chemical reactions must be distinguished from physical changes. Physical changes include changes of state, such as ice melting to liquid water and liquid water evaporating to water vapor. If a physical change occurs, the physical properties of a substance will change, but its chemical identity will remain the same. No matter what its physical state, water (H2O) is the same compound—with each molecule composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
In contrast, chemical reactions result from the breaking and re-forming of chemical bonds between atoms in the reactants and the products, respectively. If water, as ice, liquid, or vapor, encounters sodium metal (Na), the bonds between the atoms of the reactants will break and the atoms will be redistributed, forming the new substances sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H2). The different chemical composition and properties of the products indicate that a chemical change or reaction has occurred.
To describe chemical reactions, scientists use chemical equations, which make use of symbols and formulas for elements and compounds. The chemical equation for the reaction between sodium and water would be written as follows:
2 Na + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2
Chemical equations show how mass is conserved in chemical reactions because the same atoms are present in the reactants as in the products, although they are combined in different ways.
Some chemical changes cannot be directly observed and must be detected through specialized tests. However, some chemical changes are readily apparent, producing changes in color or other observable signs.
For example, heating a mixture of iron, which is gray, and sulfur, which is yellow, causes a reaction that produces iron sulfide, which is black. The corrosion of certain metals forms rust, a brownish powdery or flaky material known as a metal oxide.
Many chemical reactions produce a temperature change. This is easily observed in some reactions, as when certain metals exposed to oxygen produce a characteristic flame. Many temperature changes are less apparent, generating heat but no flames. An example is the reaction of water with calcium oxide, which forms calcium hydroxide and releases a great deal of heat in the process.
The appearance of bubbles is evidence of a gas-forming chemical reaction. Baking provides an example of this: cake batter rises when an acid in the batter reacts with baking soda, or sodium bicarbonate. The reaction produces carbon dioxide, which causes the batter to rise.
The appearance of a precipitate is evidence that a chemical change has occurred. A precipitate is a solid material that forms when certain liquids are mixed together. Combining solutions of calcium chloride and sodium bicarbonate produces a precipitate of calcium carbonate, which appears as a white solid material in the solution.
Chemical reactions can be classified in different ways. For example, reactions can be classified by the type of product formed. An example is an acid-base reaction, which produces a salt and water:
acid + base → salt + water
Many chemical reactions are classified according to the manner in which the reaction proceeds. In a synthesis reaction, for example, the product is a chemical compound formed, or synthesized, by combining simpler reactants. The production of chloromethane is an example. In this reaction, methane (CH4) is mixed with a molecule of chlorine (Cl2), forming the products chloromethane (CH3Cl) and hydrogen chloride (HCl):
Decomposition reactions are processes in which chemical compounds are broken down into simpler products. Decomposition reactions generally require the input of energy. For example, applying heat to the solid potassium chlorate (KClO3) forms oxygen gas and the solid potassium chloride (KCl) as products:
The decomposition of water into its elements through the process of electrolysis is a common reaction. In this case, electrical energy is used rather than heat energy to carry out the reaction.
Combustion is another type of chemical reaction. Combustion usually includes oxygen and usually produces heat and light in the form of flame. A familiar example of combustion is the burning of a hydrocarbon, such as methane, in the presence of oxygen; the products of this reaction are carbon dioxide and water:
Many chemical reactions can be classified in more than one category. An acid-base neutralization reaction can also be classified as a synthesis reaction. Combustion is a form of decomposition.
Energy plays a key role in chemical processes. In a chemical reaction, chemical bonds are broken in the reactants and new chemical bonds are formed in the products. Breaking bonds requires energy, whereas forming bonds allows energy to be released.
In some reactions the energy required to break bonds is greater than the energy released as new bonds form. For such a reaction to proceed, energy must be added to the process. The net result of such a reaction is the absorption of energy. A reaction in which energy is absorbed is called an endothermic reaction.
An example of an endothermic reaction is the decomposition of limestone, or calcium carbonate, to make calcium oxide. Energy in the form of heat is applied to limestone at a high temperature, causing formation of the solid calcium oxide and releasing carbon dioxide gas.
Not all endothermic reactions absorb energy as heat. In the electrolysis of water, the energy absorbed is electrical energy generated by an electrical current passed through the water.
In contrast to endothermic reactions are exothermic reactions; these are chemical reactions in which there is a net release of energy. Exothermic reactions often produce an increase in temperature when heat is the energy form involved. Among widely recognizable exothermic reactions is the combustion of fuels (such as the reaction of methane with oxygen mentioned previously), which releases energy as heat. The formation of water from molecular hydrogen and oxygen and the synthesis of a metal oxide, such as calcium oxide from calcium metal and oxygen gas, are other examples of exothermic reactions.
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